FOCUS ON PHILATELY
by Ingert Kuzych
The founding family of Kyivan Rus'
PART II
This article is the second of three detailing the lives of the first "First Family" of medieval Kyivan Rus' - Ihor, Olha and Sviatoslav. The articles in this monarch series are illustrated, where possible, with related philatelic issues.
St. Olha, queen of Ukraine
Although a great deal has been written about Princess Olha over the years, not all that much can be attributed to her with certainty. We don't even know when or exactly where she was born.
The Povist Vremennykh Lit or PVL (The Tale of Bygone Years), which chronicles some of Ukraine's earliest history, first mentions Olha under the year 6411. (i.e., 903)_1_; it states, "As Ihor grew up, he followed after Oleh [his kinsman], and obeyed his instructions. A wife, Olha by name, was brought to him [Ihor] from Pskov."_2_ The PVL later goes on to record that Ihor was killed on a tax-collecting expedition in about 945, leaving behind Olha who assumed the regency in the name of their infant son, Prince Sviatoslav.
Even if Olha was very young when she married Ihor, perhaps 15, she would have had to have been the unlikely age of almost 60 when she bore her only son. We know from other sources that circa 945 is accurate for Ihor's death and that he was probably about 35 when he died. His wife at that time was likely 25 or 30, so we may assign her birth to about the year 920.
All we really know then of Olha's early life up to about the year 945 is that she was married to King Ihor, bore a son about the year 943 named Sviatoslav, and was likely of Scandinavian or Slavic-Scandinavian origin and a noblewoman._3_
Regardless of her background, Olha was an extraordinary woman: determined, clever and courageous in establishing internal order, she was also a wise and skillful diplomat in her dealings with foreign states. The Varangian (Viking) retinue of her husband recognized her authority, and the Slavic tribes subjugated by Ihor largely submitted to her rule (Figure 1).
Revenge
According to the PVL, Olha spent the first two years of her reign exacting vengeance on the Derevlianians, the Slavic tribe responsible for her husband's death. Four different revenges, each of increasing severity, are detailed; they demonstrate not only her cunning but also her pagan background. The monk chroniclers who wrote the PVL may have deliberately exaggerated the bloodiness of these reprisals in order to emphasize the complete change in Olha's character after she adopted Christianity.
Olha's first revenge was carried out on the 20 envoys sent to Kyiv by the Derevlianians to announce the death of Ihor and to suggest a possible marriage of alliance. The messengers explained that the Derevlianians had slain her husband, "because he was like a wolf, crafty and ravening, but that their princes, who had thus preserved the land of Dereva, were good, and that Olha should come and marry their Prince Mal." Olha replied "Your proposal is pleasing to me; indeed, my husband cannot rise again from the dead. But I desire to honor you tomorrow in the presence of my people."_4_ The "honor" that was shown the envoys was death by burial alive in a boat, a Scandinavian practice of which the Derevlianians were unaware.
Olha then sent messengers to the Derevlianians that if they wished her to come, they should send their most distinguished men "so that she might go to their prince with due honor, for otherwise her people in Kyiv would not let her go." The Derevlianians complied and "gathered together the best men who governed the land of Dereva, and sent them to her." When they arrived "Olha commanded that a bath should be made ready, and invited them to appear before her after they had bathed. The bathhouse was then heated, and the Derevlianians entered in to bathe. Olha's men closed up the bathhouse behind them, and she gave orders to set it on fire from the doors, so that the Derevlianians were all burned to death."_5_
Next Olha sent word to the Derevlianians that she was coming to mourn at her husband's grave. "Upon her arrival at Ihor's tomb, she wept for her husband. She bade her followers pile up a great mound and when they had piled it up, she also gave command that a funeral feast should be held. Thereupon the Derevlianians sat down to drink, and Olha bade her followers wait upon them. The Derevlianians inquired of Olha where the retinue was which they had sent to meet her. She replied that they were following with her husband's bodyguard. When the Derevlianians were drunk, she bade her followers fall upon them, and went about herself egging on her retinue to the massacre of the Derevlianians. So they cut down 5,000 of them; but Olha returned to Kyiv and prepared an army to attack the survivors."_6_
The following year (946) "Olha, together with her son Sviatoslav, gathered a large and valiant army, and proceeded to attack the land of the Derevlianians. The latter came out to meet her troops, and when both forces were ready for combat, Sviatoslav cast his spear against the Derevlianians. But the spear barely cleared the horse's ears and stuck against his leg, for the prince was but a child. Then Sveneld [the troop commander] and Asmund [the boy's tutor] said, "The prince has already begun battle; press on, vassals, after the prince" (Figure 2). Thus they conquered the Derevlianians, with the result that the latter fled and shut themselves up in their cities. Olha hastened with her son to the city of Iskorosten, for it was there that her husband had been slain, and they laid siege to the city. The Derevlianians barricaded themselves within the city, and fought valiantly from it."_7_
After a frustrating, lengthy siege, Olha sent a message to the townsfolk, saying that if they submitted to paying her tribute as all the other Derevlianians had now agreed to do, she would leave them in peace. Since they were not able to pay with the usual commodities of honey or furs, she requested only that each household deliver three sparrows and three pigeons. The relieved inhabitants gladly assented to her request.
Olha distributed the birds among her soldiers and had them attach a piece of cloth-bound sulfur to each. These little bundles were then ignited and the birds, once free, returned to their nests or coops which quickly caught fire. "There was not a house that was not consumed, and it was impossible to extinguish the flames, because all the houses caught fire at once. The people fled from the city, and Olha ordered her soldiers to catch them. Thus she took the city and burned it, and captured the elders of the city. Some of the other captives she killed, while she gave others as slaves to her followers."_8_ A remnant of the population was left alive to pay a heavy tribute: two-thirds of which went to the state, one-third into Olha's own coffers.
By this time Olha was a very wealthy woman. Even before the death of her husband she owned a number of landed estates. The chronicles mention Vyshhorod_9_ as "Olha's city"; she also owned Olzhychi in the Desna area and several villages in the Pskov and Novhorod regions. After Ihor's death, Olha must have become the largest landowner in Kyivan-Rus'.
Having effectively avenged herself on the Derevlianians, Olha realized that the haphazard and arbitrary gathering of tribute that had led to Ihor's death would have to be abolished. Instead she divided the country into a number of clearly demarcated districts (pohosty) from which specified amounts of tribute would be collected at regular intervals by a princely agent or local board. These new practices amounted to a centralization of the financial and administrative structure of the country. What had been tributes exacted from autonomous tribes became uniform tithes paid by the entire population._10_
Olha spent the next several years familiarizing herself with her vast domains._11_ She made numerous trips to all of the major towns setting up trading posts and seeing to it that her subjects were ensured the means of sustaining themselves (and therefore in a position to pay future taxes). She also set aside for the princely treasury exclusive rights to certain rich fur-bearing areas, further ensuring a steady flow of income (Figure 3).
Sometime in the sixth decade of the ninth century, Princess Olha was baptized, the single act for which she is most famous. She thus became the first of the ruling family to be converted to Christianity. The exact date of Olha's conversion has been the subject of intense debate._12_ Years usually given range from 954 up to 960; the traditional date in the PVL is 955. The place of her baptism is generally assigned to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium, on the occasion of Olha's state visit to that city.
The story related in the PVL is as follows: "Olha went to Greece and arrived at Tsarhorod (Constantinople). The reigning emperor was named Constantine, son of Leo._13_ Olha came before him, and when he saw that she was very fair of countenance_14_ and wise as well, the emperor wondered at her intellect. He conversed with her and remarked that she was worthy to reign with him in his city. When Olha heard his words, she replied that she was still a pagan, and that if he desired to baptize her, he should perform this function himself; otherwise, she was unwilling to accept baptism. The emperor, with the assistance of the patriarch, accordingly baptized her ... At her baptism she was christened Helena, after the ancient empress, mother of Constantine the Great. The patriarch then blessed her and dismissed her."
"After her baptism, the emperor summoned Olha and made known to her that he wished her to become his wife. But she replied, "How can you marry me, after yourself baptizing me and calling me your daughter? For among Christians that is unlawful, as you yourself must know." Then the emperor said, "Olha, you have outwitted me. He gave her many gifts of gold, silver, silks and various vases, and dismissed her, still calling her his daughter ... she returned in peace to her own country and arrived in Kyiv."_15_
Olha's receptions are recorded by Emperor Constantine himself in his work De Caerimoniis. Because Kyivan Rus' was a rising power in the middle of the 10th century, it was so recognized by Byzantium. Olha, was treated in a "fitting manner" and was "fittingly honored"_16_ during her stay at the imperial court. She was granted a very high title, probably that of zoste patrikia ("girdled lady")._17_ This title, which was never granted to pagans, allowed Olha to sit at the emperor's table with members of the imperial family.
Since Constantine places the official receptions of Olha and her entourage on Wednesday, September 9, and Sunday, October 18, the only possible year of Olha's visit could be 957._18_ The emperor, however, does not mention her baptism and since we know that the PVL can err at this time period by several years, some historians have speculated that she was converted either a few years before or after her visit to the Imperial Capital, possibly in Kyiv.
However, just because Constantine does not mention a baptism does not mean that one did not occur. Perhaps, as alluded to in the PVL, something of an embarrassing nature did occur between the emperor and Olha at her baptism that caused him not to record the event. Even though the departure of the princess and her retinue from Byzantium occurred amicably, something about the reception caused Olha to be piqued._19_
The PVL goes on to say: "Thus Olha arrived in Kyiv, and the Greek emperor sent a message to her, saying, 'Inasmuch as I bestowed many gifts upon you, you promised me that on your return to Rus' you would send me many presents of slaves, wax and furs, and dispatch soldiery to aid me.' Olha made answer to the envoys that if the Emperor would spend as long a time with her in the Pochaina_20_ as she had remained on the Bosporus, she would grant his request. With these words, she dismissed the envoys."_21_
Although the highlight of Olha's visit, her conversion, is always commented upon by historians, there was undoubtedly another more practical reason for making the arduous 35- to 45-day trek_22_ to the imperial city. Byzantium and Rus' had concluded treaties in 907 and 945; the latter was made by Ihor not long before he died. Olha's visit was likely also made in order to renew and strengthen commercial ties. Olha's retinue was considerably larger than her husband's delegation a dozen years earlier and included far more members of higher rank._23_ The visit lasted at least six weeks, much of the time between the first and second receptions was undoubtedly spent conducting negotiations. The inability to conclude a new treaty of commerce - if such was the alternate intention of this trip - may have been another reason for Olha's brusqueness with the Byzantine envoys.
Ingert Kuzych may be contacted at P.O. Box 3, Springfield, VA 22150 or at his e-mail address: [email protected].
1. The English translation of the PVL consulted for this article is that of Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, "The Russian Primary Chronicle, Laurentian Text" (Cambridge, Mass.: The Medieval Academy of America, 1953), hereafter PVL. This reference is from p. 64. [Back to Text]
2. Established by the Slovenians, a Slavic tribe, Pskov became an important center of trade and commerce during the eighth through the 10th centuries. Another tradition relates Olha to the nearby town of lzborsk. This difference is not necessarily a contradiction since lzborsk preceded Pskov as the economic and political center of the Slovenians. See Norman Golb and Omeljan Pritsak, "Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century" (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982) p. 67. [Back to Text]
3. Because Olha was Prince Ihor's wife, and not his slave or concubine, she most likely came from one of the leading clans among the Slovenians. Izborsk, close by Pskov, was one of the three towns that invited Varangians to rule over them some time during the second half of the ninth century, and Norman influence over the Slavs continued to expand during the early decades of the 10th century. So, during the time of Olha's birth around 920, the ruling strata among the Slovenians - presumably including Olha's parents - if not purely Scandinavian, were at least partially of northern extraction. See Omeljan Pritsak, "The Invitation to the Varangians." Harvard Ukrainian Studies 1 (1977) pp. 7-22. [Back to Text]
4. PVL, trans. Cross, p. 79. If such a proposal was indeed ever put forth, it would suggest that Olha was still young and eligible for a dynastic marriage. An offer of this type would not likely have been made to a sexagenarian. [Back to Text]
5. PVL, pp. 79-80. [Back to Text]
6. PVL, p. 80. [Back to Text]
7. PVL, p. 80. [Back to Text]
8. PVL, p. 81. The incendiary bird motive appears in a variety of medieval manuscripts and was almost certainly brought to Ukraine via Scandinavia. All four revenges are likely embellished with legendary elements, but they certainly contain a kernel of truth. Olha undoubtedly vented her fury on the Derevlianians for the death of her husband and may have been especially severe on the citizens of Iskorosten, the Derevlianian capital. [Back to Text]
9. A strategic fortress on the Dnipro River (some 15 kilometers north of Kyiv) that defended the northern approach to the city. [Back to Text]
10. George Vernadsky, "Kievan Russia" (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948) p. 39. [Back to Text]
11. During Olha's reign and those of her successors over most of the next century and a half (up to the death of Volodymyr Monomakh in 1125) Kyivan-Rus' was the largest state in Europe. [Back to Text]
12. For more recent discussions see: Omeljan Pritsak, "When and Where was Olga Baptized?" Harvard Ukrainian Studies (HUS) No. 9 (June 1-2, 1985): pp. 5-21; Dimitri Obolensky, "Olga's Conversion: The Evidence Reconsidered," HUS 12/13 (1988-1989): pp. 145-158; Miroslav Labunka, "Religious Centers and Their Missions to Kievan-Rus: From Olga to Volodimer," HUS 12/13 (1988/1989): pp. 159-193; and Jeffrey Featherstone, "Olga's Visit to Constantinople," HUS No. 14 (December 3-4, 1990): pp. 293-312. [Back to Text]
13. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who reigned from 912 to 959. [Back to Text]
14. At this time Olha may still have been in her mid-30s. [Back to Text]
15. PVL, pp. 82-83. [Back to Text]
16. Ioannis Skylitzae, Synopsis Historiarum, I. Thurn, ed. (Berlin, 1973). A court official of the 11th century with access to detailed sources, Skylitzae is considered very reliable. [Back to Text]
17. Featherstone, p. 309. [Back to Text]
18. Featherstone, p. 305. [Back to Text]
19. Some historians have speculated that Olha may have been perturbed at Constantine because he would not allow an autonomous or autocephalous church to be established in Kyiv. He may have insisted that new Rus' converts recognize the religious authority of the patriarch of Constantinople and, by extension, the political suzerainty of the emperor; see Vernadsky, p. 41. [Back to Text]
20. The Pochaina was a stream that flowed below the hills on which the older part of Kyiv was situated, it was separated from the Dnipro by a sandpit. [Back to Text]
21. PVL, p. 83. [Back to Text]
22. Pritsak, "Khazarian Hebrew Documents," p. 14. [Back to Text]
23. Ihor's envoys in 945 included 25 representatives (none members of princely families) and 30 merchants (PVL, p. 73), compared to Olha's 15 relations (including Ihor's nephew), 22 nobles and 44 merchants (De Caerimoniis, ed. Vogt). [Back to Text]
PART II
Copyright © The Ukrainian Weekly, November 3, 2002, No. 44, Vol. LXX
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